1 November 2024
Echoes of the Past, Rhythms of the Future
The Dance of Music and Psychedelics
By Alexandre Lehmann, Ph.D.
MAPS Bulletin: Volume XXXIV Number 1 • 2024
Music and mind-altering substances have danced in harmony for centuries, yet we still know surprisingly little about how they work together. Here we explore the intertwined paths of sound and psychedelics through history, culture, and science. Our focus narrows on MDMA, from its hopeful beginnings as the therapeutic ‘Adam’ to its tumultuous fame as “Ecstasy”. Moving forward, we explore the latest research to understand the combined effects of music & psychedelics, and we peer into a hopeful future where this duo could offer benefits beyond mental health.
From Tribal Beats to Psychedelic Science
The union of music and psychoactive substances spans cultures and time. Music has served as a guide within altered states of consciousness in ancient rituals, from Amazonian Icaro songs to Mazatec chants to the Native American Church’s water drum and the Bwiti rhythms of Gabon. In Europe, Celtic rituals integrated music with potions at sacred sites like Stonehenge (later found to have unique acoustic properties), while the Greek Eleusinian Mysteries skillfully combined entrancing music and visual effects with the Kykeon brew, believed to have contained ergot fungi. While ancient traditions laid the groundwork for the intricate dance between sound and psychedelic states, the scientific discoveries of the 20th century brought this relationship into a renewed light.
From Sandoz to Woodstock
On April 19th, 1943, Albert Hofmann took a bicycle ‘trip’ that propelled LSD onto the medical stage. Music was recognized early on as a critical element of “set & setting” (the non-drug factors influencing the experience). Helen Bonny & Walter Pahnke (1972) observed that music helps individuals let go, facilitating emotional release and peak experiences. Additionally, music provided a sense of continuity, offering direction and structure through the psychedelic session. Their musical selection avoided lyrics and consisted of classical and religious music arranged to resonate with the distinct phases of the ten-hour-long LSD experience, from the onset to the peak, the plateau, and finally, the return.
The intertwining of music and psychedelics was not only shaping the therapeutic landscape but also leaving an indelible mark on culture. The 1960s saw a new genre, “psychedelic rock” or “acid rock,” led by bands like Pink Floyd and The Grateful Dead. Stanley Owsley, the sound engineer for the Grateful Dead and a clandestine chemist, used psychedelic drug proceeds to fund the creation of the Dead’s “Wall of Sound,” forever changing sound recording and monitoring technology at live concerts. Conversly, Myron Stolaroff, designer of the pioneering Ampex recorder adopted by major music studios, used his profits to fund psychedelic research on creativity and problem-solving.
The rapid psychedelic crescendo hit a sour note in 1970 as LSD and psilocybin were abruptly banned. Psychedelic therapy went underground, and hippies went East, spreading acid rock to communities in Ibiza, Kathmandu, and Goa. In Goa, another musical journey would later unfold that saw New Wave, Goth, and Synth Pop tapes cut and pasted with scissors and tape to remove “distracting lyrics” for all-night ecstatic dancing, later birthing the Goa Trance genre as the first synthesizers appeared.
From Merck to the RAVE Act
Synthesized by Merck in 1912, MDMA lingered in obscurity until it caught the attention of Sasha Shulgin in 1976. He called it “Window” and introduced it to therapist Leo Zeff, who quickly renamed it “Adam.” Zeff integrated it into therapy, training others, including Ann, who later married Sasha. At the Shulgin farm, whether listening to records or KDFC classical radio, Ann and Sasha found profound meaning in the works of Rachmaninov, Tchaikovsky, Bach, and Beethoven, remarking that “there is a story in every piece of music.”
The effects of MDMA, an “entactogen,” differ from classic psychedelics, warranting a nuanced approach to music, including extended talk therapy intervals. Greer and Tolbert (1998) share learnings from treating patients in the early 1980s in the first published treatment guidelines. They curated selections of instrumental music, starting with peaceful and relaxing (Brian Eno, Allan Stivel), into more activating (Mahler, Vangelis), and back to more ambient and gentler — matching the five-hour pharmacological arc. Music played softly in the background for group sessions, as most of the time was spent talking.
Therapists – and even Timothy Leary – were advocating for a low-profile strategy to avoid repeating LSD’s journey from therapeutic wonder to public enemy. Yet in the early 1980s, rebranded as “Ecstasy,” MDMA exploded in the Texas club scene before spreading to New York, Chicago – where it would inspire “acid house” – and to Paris and London, seeding the “free party” movement (Collin, 2010). Musicians crafted music with features that enhanced the MDMA high, establishing a natural feedback loop where DJs popularized tracks that resonated most with the “ecstatic audience”.
Although its potential neurotoxic dose is still debated, MDMA is not without risk, particularly when its strength and purity are unknown and when used in settings that can lead to overheating and dehydration. As MDMA grew popular, reports of health issues, including fatalities, led to its ban in 1985. Some viewed harsh prohibition as imperative to protect the youth, while others argued it would increase harm and impede research. By targeting event promoters, the 2003 RAVE Act (Reducing Americans’ Vulnerability to Ecstasy) has driven events into underground venues that may lack crucial safety measures. The legislation also discourages event producers from implementing harm reduction measures, such as drug testing, free water stations to prevent dehydration, and quiet ‘chill out’ areas where attendees can rest and cool down.
Therapists lamented the loss of a valuable tool, while rave culture advocates defended their all-night dance marathons as contemporary renditions of ancient communal rites. Although not every festival features the healing attributes of ancient ceremonies, Nascimento and McAteer argue that some celebrations can be seen as modern rituals (2002; 2006). Despite their digital façade, they aspire to the same goals: building communal bonds, providing a haven from the mundane, and cultivating a shared sense of joy. More than escapism, they provide a sense of belonging and meaning for a young generation seeking connection in a disenchanted world. These spaces provide a sanctuary for expressing cultural and gender identities marginalized by mainstream society. Participants share a collective, almost tribal identity (St. John, 2004).
Modern Harmony: the psychedelics comeback on the therapeutic stage
The modern resurgence of clinical studies on psychedelics underscores the need for a rapid catch-up with the past forty years of scientific progress. We now understand how music has served critical roles in human societies and our knowledge of music’s effect and therapeutic properties has deepened significantly. Music’s capacity to foster social bonding was critical in its development and spread throughout humanity. It promoted social cohesion as human groups grew by providing a rhythmic reference facilitating group activities. Moving in unison with others during harvesting or religious ceremonies can lead to ‘self-other merging’ – a blending of the sense of self and others (Tarr et al., 2014) and can increase group affiliation (Hove & Risen, 2009). Activation of brain networks involved in emotions, memory, and movement underlies music therapy’s effectiveness in improving mood, social interaction, and cognition. Music can induce pleasurable chills by influencing the brain’s reward system (Zatorre & Salimpoor, 2013). Music can induce a sense of groove, urging the listener to move, which aligns well with dance and movement therapy’s effectiveness in rehabilitating movement. Neuroplasticity, a capability music shares with psychedelics, allows the brain to reorganize itself by forming new connections and regenerating neural tissue.
Marlene Dobkin de Rios (1975) suggests that music acts like a “jungle gym” for consciousness, giving it a structure to explore during psychedelic journeys. The past decade saw the emergence of a new field of music and psychedelic research, suggesting that music can facilitate deeply therapeutic psychedelic experiences. Lisa Summer and Bill Richards, heavily influenced by Bonny, have been designing musical programs for modern clinical trials at Harvard and Johns Hopkins. A study by Strickland (2020) suggests the type of music might not matter as much as we thought; both classical and non-Western sounds appeared to work equally well. At Imperial College, Ros Watts and Mendel Kaleen have incorporated more contemporary music for the playlists used in depression trials. Patients’ relationship to music predicted their therapeutic outcomes, leading to the concept of music as a “hidden therapist” (Kaelen et al., 2018). Perhaps unsurprisingly, but an important milestone, the only human study of the impact of psychedelics on music appreciation found that LSD enhances the emotional response to music (Kaelen et al., 2015). The only data on music and MDMA comes from a study in rats, suggesting music and MDMA synergistically interact to facilitate movement and increase reward-related neurotransmitters (Feduccia & Duvauchelle, 2008).
Regarding music, MAPS’ treatment manual (Mithoefer, 2015) acknowledges Zeff, Greer, and Tolbert. It calls for a culturally sensitive music selection to support the emotional arc, allow participant autonomy in music choices, and adapt music to the session’s flow. The four playlists used in the MDMA clinical trials begin with calming tracks like Peter Kater’s “Migration,” transition to more lively and emotional pieces from Afro Celt Sound System or Vangelis, peak with intense scores by Hans Zimmer, and gently conclude with tranquil compositions.
Besides PTSD, MDMA is emerging as a promising treatment for a range of conditions, from social anxiety to enhancing couples’ therapy. In the last decade, studies have demonstrated psychedelics’ remarkable ability to promote brain plasticity. Even more astonishing, it was shown that MDMA can reopen critical windows of social plasticity in octopuses and mice, once-in-a-lifetime golden hours when the brain can learn specific skills, like speaking or walking (Nardou et al., 2019). These “windows” – echoing Sasha’s short-lived nickname – represent the master key of plasticity. Because they close after childhood, re-opening them has been the “Holy Grail” for neuro-therapeutics. A recent patent by Gul Dölen (2024) suggests psychedelics could reopen the critical windows for learning motor skills, offering innovative treatments for stroke, Parkinson’s and dementia.
Orchestrating the Future Dance of MDMA and Music
An exciting research roadmap awaits. It starts with the need to fund research on how MDMA affects perception, music cognition, and emotional processing in humans. It’s also critical to explore music modalities attuned to individual differences and preferences, as initiated by Williams (2020). There’s also interest in expanding beyond music playlists to include live music, singing and DJ-style continuous mixes. Examining music (and other setting elements) from ancient ceremonies and modern celebrations could uncover shared characteristics supporting therapeutic outcomes. An analysis of expert psilocybin facilitators’ recommendations revealed common traits in music chosen for peak experiences (Barrett et al., 2017). Group sessions offer valuable support and healing and are worth exploring more, especially with music therapy. Hofmann lamented the fate of his “problem child,” believing that its potential as a “wunderkind” could be realized under a suitable societal set & setting. Looking ahead, we might see LSD and MDMA-augmented dance and movement therapy becoming a breakthrough intervention for neurodegenerative diseases and preventing aging-related disorders.
On the cultural scene, acid rock and acid house have pollinated countless music genres over the past decades. We are currently seeing new trends, such as the rise of the “Music for Psychedelic Therapy” genre (highlighted by Jon Hopkins’ eponymous album, East Forest’s “Music for Mushrooms,” and Kaelen’s generative Wavepath). The merging of the neo-shamanic genre with electronic dance music is giving birth to a new techno-ceremonial soundtrack resonating through modern gatherings, illustrated by artists like Liquid Bloom. We’ve come full circle, as new therapeutic options and global dance culture echo the ancient healing rhythms, inviting us to “come together” and cultivate connection in a time characterized by division and isolation.
We are free to understand the world as our own dance together.
Francisco Varela
References
Barrett, F. S., Robbins, H., Smooke, D., Brown, J. L., & Griffiths, R. R. (2017). Qualitative and Quantitative Features of Music Reported to Support Peak Mystical Experiences during Psychedelic Therapy Sessions. Frontiers in Psychology, 8.
Bonny, H. L., & Pahnke, W. N. (1972). The Use of Music in Psychedelic (LSD) Psychotherapy. Journal of Music Therapy, 9(2), 64–87.
Collin, M. (2010). Altered State: The Story of Ecstasy Culture and Acid House. Profile Books.
De Rios, M. D., & Katz, F. (1975). Some Relationships between Music and Hallucinogenic Ritual: The “Jungle Gym” in Consciousness. Ethos, 3(1), 64–76.
Dolen, G., Krakauer, J., Nardou, R., Zeiler, S. R., & Deus, J. L. D. (2024). Restoration of motor function post-neurological injury using psychedelics (United States Patent US20240041860A1)
Feduccia, A. A., & Duvauchelle, C. L. (2008). Auditory stimuli enhance MDMA-conditioned reward and MDMA-induced nucleus accumbens dopamine, serotonin and locomotor responses. Brain Research Bulletin, 77(4), 189–196.
Greer, G. R., & Tolbert, R. (1998). A method of conducting therapeutic sessions with MDMA. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30(4), 371–380.
Hove, M., & Risen, J. (2009). It’s All in the Timing: Interpersonal Synchrony Increases Affiliation. Social Cognition, 949-961 (2009), 27.
Kaelen, M., Barrett, F. S., Roseman, L., Lorenz, R., Family, N., Bolstridge, M., Curran, H. V., Feilding, A., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2015). LSD enhances the emotional response to music. Psychopharmacology.
Kaelen, M., Giribaldi, B., Raine, J., Evans, L., Timmerman, C., Rodriguez, N., Roseman, L., Feilding, A., Nutt, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. (2018). The hidden therapist: Evidence for a central role of music in psychedelic therapy. Psychopharmacology, 235(2), 505–519.
McAteer, M. B. (2002). “Redefining the Ancient Tribal Ritual for the 21st Century:” Goa Gil and the Trance Dance Experience. Reed College Division of Philosophy, Religion, and Psychology
Mithoefer, M. C. (2015). A Manual for MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. MAPS
Nardou, R., Lewis, E. M., Rothhaas, R., Xu, R., Yang, A., Boyden, E., & Dölen, G. (2019). Oxytocin-dependent reopening of a social reward learning critical period with MDMA. Nature, 569(7754), 116–120.
Nascimento, A. F. N. (2006). Psychedelic Rituals in the Planetary Era. PUC Sao Paolo
St. John, G. (Ed.). (2004). Rave culture and religion. Routledge.
Strickland, J. C., Garcia-Romeu, A., & Johnson, M. W. (2020). Set and Setting: A Randomized Study of Different Musical Genres in Supporting Psychedelic Therapy. ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science
Tarr, B., Launay, J., & Dunbar, R. I. M. (2014). Music and social bonding: “Self-other” merging and neurohormonal mechanisms. Frontiers in Psychology, 5.
Williams, M. T., Reed, S., & Aggarwal, R. (2020). Culturally informed research design issues in a study for MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 4(1), 40–50.
Zatorre, R. J., & Salimpoor, V. N. (2013). From perception to pleasure: Music and its neural substrates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110 Suppl 2, 10430–10437.
Alexandre Lehmann, Ph.D.
Alexandre Lehmann is a cognitive neuroscientist, a psychedelic science advisor, and an amateur audio-visual artist. A MAPS supporter since 2002, he is fascinated by the intersection of music and consciousness and, in 2007, co-founded one of the earliest conference series on psychedelic science. Since then, he has been advising print media such as Scientific American (French edition), El Pais, and AFP and featured in national news outlets (CBC, Radio France). For over a decade as an Investigator at the International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research (BRAMS) and the Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program (BRaIN) in Montreal, he has been investigating the perception of sound, the health impact of music, as well as brain plasticity in musicians and those with hearing disorders. Over recent years, he has been serving as a scientific advisor of a philanthropic foundation. He is currently writing a book on the art & science of psychedelics and music.
